Connecticut  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station 

NEW  HAVEN,  CONN. 
BULLETIN  205  APRIL,  1918 

ENTOMOLOGICAL  SERIES,  No.  25 


BEEKEEPING  FOR  CONNECTICUT 

By  A.  W.  YATES 


CONTENTS 

Page  Page 

Officers  and  Staff  of  Station 424         Swarm  Control 435 

Beekeeping  for  Connecticut 425  Comb  Honey 436 

Hives 427  Extracted  Honey 437 

The  Standard  or  Langstroth  Hive 427  When  to  Put  on  Supers 437 

The  Super 428  The  Extractor 438 

The  Frame 429  Care  of  Extracted  Honey 438 

The  Sectional  Brood  Chamber  Hive.  .  .429  Honey  and  Its  Uses 439 

Smokers 43 1  Honey  Plants 439 

Veils 431  Diseases  of  Bees 441 

Hive  Tool 431  American  Foul   Brood 441 

Comb  Foundation 432  European  Foul  Brood 442 

Stocking  with  Bees 432  How  Foul  Brood  Diseases  are  Spread  .444 

The  Colony 433  Treatment 444 

Workers 434  Disinfection 445 

Drones 434         Apiary  Inspection  in  Connecticut 44  c 

Races  of  Bees   434  Publications  on  Beekeeping 446 

Location 435 


The  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  mailed  free  to  citizens  of  Connecti- 
cut who  apply  for  them,  and  to  others  as  far  as  the  editions  permit. 


CONNECTICUT  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

OFFICERS  AND  STAFF. 


BOARD   OF  CONTROL. 
His  Excellency,  Marcus  H.  Holcomb,  ex-officio,  President. 

James  H.  Webb,  Vice  President Hamden 

George  A.  Hopson,  Secretary Wallingford 

E.  H.  Jenkins,  Director  and  Treasurer New  Haven 

Joseph  W.  Alsop Avon 

Wilson  H.  Lee Orange 

Elijah  Rogers Southington 

Administration.  E.  H.  Jenkins,  Ph.D.,   Director  and  Treasurer. 

Miss  V.  E.  Cole,  Librarian  and  Stenographer. 
Miss  L.   M.  Brautlecht,   Bookkeeper  and  Stenographer. 
William  Veitch,  In  charge  of  Buildings  and  Grounds. 

Chemjstry. 

Analytical  Laboratory.     tJoHN  Phillips  Street,  M.S.,  Chemist  in  charge. 

E.  Monroe  Bailey,  Ph.D.,  C.  B.  Morison,  B.S.   \    .      . 

^    t-,    o  .T-.  -r,     t,  '  i  Assistants. 

C.  E.  Shepherd,  M.  d  Esopo,  Ph.B.  > 

Hugo  Lange,  Laboratory   Helper. 

V.  L.  Churchill,  Sampling  Agent. 

Protein  Research.  T.  B.  Osborne,  Ph.D.,  D.Sc,  Chemist  in  charge. 

Miss  E.  L.  Ferry,  M.S.,  Assistant. 


Botany. 


Entomology. 


Forestry. 


Plant  Breeding. 
Vegetable  Growing 


G.  P.  Clinton,  Sc.D.,   Botanist. 

E.   M.  Stoddard,  B.S.,  Assistant   Botanist. 

Mtss  F.  A.   McCormick,  Ph.D.,  Scientific  Assistant. 

G.  E.  Graham,  General  Assistant. 

W.  E.  Britton,  Ph.D.,  Entomologist;    Stale  Entomologist. 
B.   H.  Walden,   B.Agr.,   First  Assistant. 
I.  W.  Davis,  B.Sc,  M.  P.  Zappe,  B.S.,   Assistants. 
Miss  G.  A.  Foote,  B.A.,  Stenographer. 

Walter  O.  Filley,  Forester;    also  State  Forester 

and  State  Forest  Fire   Warden. 
A.  E.   Moss,   M.F.,  Assistant  Stale  and  Station  Forester. 
Miss  E.  L.  Avery,  Stenographer. 

Donald  F.  Jones,  M.S.,  Plant  Breeder. 
C  D.  Hubbell,  Assistant. 

W.  C.  Pelton,  B.S. 


t  Absent  "on  leave.     In  U.  S.  Service. 


BEEKEEPING  FOR  CONNECTICUT. 

By  A.  W.  Yates. 


Introduction. 


Beekeeping  is  a  possible  source  of  both  pleasure  and  profit  re- 
quiring a  small  amount  of  attention.  Honey  has  considerable 
value  as  food,  and  in  these  days  of  food  conservation  and  shortage 
of  sugar,  its  value  is  correspondingly  greater  than  in  normal  times. 
Beeswax  is  also  valuable  and  both  honey  and  wax  find  a  ready 
market.  Beekeeping  has  never  been  properly  developed  in  Con- 
necticut. There  are  many  beekeepers,  each  with  a  few  colonies, 
but  in  most  cases  the  bees  are  left  to  shift  for  themselves.  There 
is  need  of  more  bees  in  the  hands  of  energetic  beekeepers,  who  will 
give  them  more  intelligent  care. 

The  outlook  for  honey  production  never  was  better,  from  the 
money  standpoint,  than  at  present,  and  the  possibilities,  through 
the  suppression  and  control  of  infectious  diseases,  are  much  greater 
in  recent  years;  therefore  it  is  hoped  that  this  bulletin,  while  not 
complete  or  by  any  means  final,  may  encourage  more  people  to 
keep  bees,  and  induce  those  who  already  have  them  to  give  them 
better  care,  so  that  beekeeping  and  honey  production  generally 
will  be  much  improved.  Bees  on  the  farm,  if  rightly  managed, 
will  prove  very  often  the  best  paying  investment  the  farmer  has 
for  the  amount  of  capital  and  time  expended,  and  farmers  who 
become  interested  in  apiculture  will  often  find  that  the  profits  far 
exceed  their  expectations.  Bees  not  only  are  valuable  as  honey 
producers  but  are  of  great  value  as  pollen  carriers,  fertilizing  a 
great  many  fruit  and  vegetable  crops,  thus  increasing  their  pro- 
ductiveness. 

The  sting,  no  doubt,  is  the  reason  why  beekeeping  is  not  more 
popular.  This,  however,  can  be  almost  entirely  avoided  by  the 
use  of  the  smoker  and  veil,  and  by  the  keeping  of  races  of  bees 
that  are  less  prone  to  stinging.  Of  course,  all  honey -gathering  bees 
have  stings  and  will  use  them  when  aroused,  but  some  races,  such 
as  the  Italians  and  Carniolans,  are  much  less  given  to  using  them. 


426         CONNECTICUT    EXPERIMENT    STATION    BULLETIN    2  05. 

Almost  any  persons,  except  those  of  a  nervous  temperament, 
can  keep  bees  if  they  desire.  Although  there  are  many  hundreds 
of  beekeepers  in  the  state,  only  a  very  small  percentage  make 
apiculture  their  sole  occupation.  There  are  locations,  without 
doubt,  where  an  experienced  beekeeper  would  be  well  paid  for 
devoting  his  whole  time  to  the  pursuit.     Almost  any  location  in 


Figure  5.  A  ten-frame  hive 
with  comb-honey  super  and  per- 
forated zinc  queen  excluder. 
(After  Phillips,  Bureau  of  Ento- 
mology, U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture.) 


Figure  6.  One-story  Standard  hive 
with  metal  cover.  (After  the  A.  I. 
Root  Co.) 


Figure    7.     New  Special  section-frame 
super.    (After  the  A.  I.  Root  Co.) 


the  state  would  support  a  few  colonies  with  profit  to  their  owner. 
Backyards  in  cities  and  villages,  or  barren  places  in  the  country, 
could  be  utilized  for  this  purpose  with  surprising  results. 

Beekeeping  is  also  popular  with  invalids  and  people  of  sedentary 
habits,  affording  them  mental  relief  and  healthful,  outdoor  exercise. 
The  apiary  inspectors  of  this  department  are  always  ready  to  give 
instruction  or  information  to  those  desiring  it.     One  or  more  of 


BEEKEEPING   FOR    CONNECTICUT.  427 

the  text  books  or  pamphlets  listed  in  the  back  of  this  bulletin  will 
be  found  helpful. 

The  hives  and  accessories  illustrated  and  described  in  the  fol- 
lowing pages  are  such  as  have  been  tested  by  practical  beekeepers 
and  can  be  recommended  to  the  beginner. 

•  He  must  remember,  however,  that  beekeeping  is  no  "get-rich- 
quick"  scheme.  To  succeed  and  to  secure  a  crop  of  honey  requires 
work,  and  work  at  the  right  time.  A  little  delay  at  such  times 
may  spell  failure.  Poor  seasons  intervene  when  colonies  will  have 
to  be  fed  to  take  them  through  the  winter  and  it  may  need  a  good 
deal  of  enthusiasm  on  the  part  of  the  beekeeper  to  keep  up  his 
courage.  These  seasons,  however,  do  not  occur  very  often  and 
the  practical  beekeeper  knows  that  he  must  make  the  best  of  them. 

Hives. 

Before  starting  beekeeping  it  is  well  to  decide  on  the  style  of 
hives  to  be  used  and  some  other  necessary  equipment.  The  bees 
are  as  contented  in  an  old  box  or  tub  as  in  the  best  modern  hive, 
but  for  economical  production  of  honey  a  carefully  made  hive  is 
essential.    Below  are  described  two  of  the  most  popular  kinds. 

THE    STANDARD    OR    LANGSTROTH    HIVE. 

This  is  the  regular  standard  hive  used  by  nearly  all  practical 
beekeepers  and  shown  in  figure  6.  A  more  thorough  description 
is  given  in  supply  catalogs.  The  hive  consists  of  a  bottom  board, 
the  brood  chamber  or  living  quarters,  which  is  a  box  containing 
either  eight  or  ten  movable  frames,  and  a  cover.  This  hive,  less  a 
few  minor  improvements,  was  invented  in  1851  by  the  Rev.  L.  L. 
Langstroth  and  is  sometimes  called  the  Langstroth  hive.  It  was 
his  knowledge  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  bee  that  enabled  him  to 
invent  a  hive  that  revolutionized  beekeeping.  All  other  movable 
frame  hives  are  but  modifications  of  this,  though  some  of  them  are 
but  poor  substitutes. 

It  is  usually  better  for  the  beekeeper  to  buy  his  hives  in  the 
flat,  nailing  them  together  himself,  rather  than  to  try  to  make 
them,  especially  if  he  values  his  time  at  anything.  Factory-made 
hives  are  made  with  great  accuracy. 

This  hive  being"  adopted  as  the  standard,  it  is  very  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  it  combines  within  itself  more  good  qualities  than 
any  other  and  should  therefore  have  the  preference. 


428 


CONNECTICUT   EXPERIMENT    STATION    BULLETIN    2CK. 


THE    SUPER. 

Above  this  standard  hive  and  beneath  the  cover,  is  placed  a 
shallow  box  or  frame  holding  the  ccmb-honey  sections  and  called 
a  "super."  The  super  is  shown  in  figures  7-10,  and  is  the  store- 
room of  the  hive,  in  which  the  bees  place  their  surplus  honey. 
Often  several  supers  are  placed  on  one  hive. 

These  supers  may  be  used  for  either  comb  or  extracted  honey, 
and  are  each  fitted  out  differently  with  inside  fixtures,  the  ex- 


W 

Figure  8.  Shallow  ex- 
tracting super.  (After  the 
A.  I.  Root  Co.) 


Figure  9.      Plain  section  super.     (After  the 
A.  I.  Root  Co.) 


tracting  supers  having 
frames  similar  to  those 
of  the  brood  chamber, 
only  much  shallower. 
These  are  also  used  in 
the  sectional  brood 
chamber  hive  described 
on  page  429.  The  sec- 
tion box  super  is  pro- 
vided with  section  hold- 
ers or  forms  to  hold  the 
delicate  section  boxes. 
The  slotted  section  super  is  the  oldest  and  there  are  probably 
more  of  them  in  use  at  present  among  beekeepers  than  any  other, 
but  they  are  slowly  being  discarded  for  those  of  later  design.  One 
important  point  in  the  construction  of  a  super  is  simplicity.  The 
more  parts  there  are,  the  more  time  it  takes  to  keep  them  cleaned 
of  propolis,  a  gummy  substance  that  the  bees  use  to  cover  cracks 
in  the  hive.     This  must  all  be  scraped  off  each  time  a  .super  is 


Figure  10. 


Slotted  section  super. 
A.  I.  Root  Co.) 


(After  the 


BEEKEEPING  FOR  CONNECTICUT. 


429 


emptied  so  that  the  parts  will  go  together  again.  The  super  most 
highly  recommended  by  the  writer  is  what  is  known  as  the  N. 
section  frame  super,  shown  in  figure  7. 

This  super,  as  the  name  implies,  is  fitted  with  eight  section 
frames  holding  four  section  boxes  each  with  the  ten-frame  hive, 
or  seven  with  the  eight-frame  hive.  The  frames  are  separated  by 
fences,  as  is  shown  in  the  illustration  above.  These  frames  not 
only  serve  to  hold  the  section  boxes  square,  but  by  covering  them 
completely  protect  them  from  stains  and  propolis  that  are  always 
present  when  the  open  top  styles  are  used. 


THE    FRAME. 

The  frame  most  com- 
monly used  with  these 
hives  is  what  is  known 
as  the  Hoffman  self- 
spacing,  shown  in  figure 
1 1 .  This  is  built  in  two 
sizes,  one  being  9  i-S 
inches  deep  for  the  reg- 
ular hive;  the  other  53-8 
inches  deep  for  the  shal- 
low hive  or  super.  These 
'  are  suspended  separately 
so  that  the  beekeeper 
may  be  able  to  take  a 
hive  of  bees  entirely 
apart  if  he  desires.     The 

person  who  has  a  modern  hive  and  does  not  avail  himself  of  the 
advantages  it  permits  may  as  well  go  back  to  the  old  box  hive  of 
his  grandfather. 


Figure    1 1 . 


The  Hoffman  frame, 
the  A.  I.  Root  Co.)  ' 


(After 


THE    SECTIONAL   BROOD    CHAMBER   HIVE. 

Another  hive  highly  recommended  by  the  author,  especially  in 
the  production  of  comb  honey,  is  what  is  called  the  sectional  brood 
chamber  hive,  shown  in  figure  12.  This  is  built  up  with  two  or 
more  units  of  extracting  supers,  such  as  are  used  with  the  Standard 
in  the  production  of  liquid  honey.  This  hive  is  especially  adapted 
to  localities  like  our  own,  where  the  honey  flow  is  of  short  duration 


43°         CONNECTICUT    EXPERIMENT    STATION    BULLETIN    205. 


and  rapid  work  in  the  super  is  required.  It  also  makes  an  ideal 
brood  chamber  for  wintering.  The  opening  between  the  two  sets 
of  frames  forms  a  passage  for  the  bees  to  pass,  during  extreme  cold 
weather,  to  get  to  fresh  winter  stores,  without  going  over,  under,  or 
around  the  combs  through  the  cold  extremities  of  the  hive;  supers 
and  brood  chamber  units  are  interchangeable;  colonies  are  easier 
and  better  kept  under  control  during  the  swarming  season;  it  is 
easy  to  make  increase  when  desired  simply  by  removing  one  unit 
and  supplying  it  with  a  queen;  and  a  strong  colony  is  always 
ready  for  the  super  when  desired  by  simply  removing  all  but  one 
unit  of  the  brood  chamber.  Beekeepers  often  ask,  "How  can  I 
get  my  bees  to  work  in  the  super?"  The  sectional  hive  solves  the 
problem.     It  puts  the  honey  in  the  super.    Yes,  all  the  honey. 


Figure   12.      Sectional  brood  chamber  hive.      (After    W.    T. 
Falconer  Mfg.  Co.) 

A  queen  excluder  (see  figure  13)  should  always  be  used  between 
the  brood  chamber  and  super  of  this  hive ;  otherwise  the  queen  in 
her  restricted  quarters  would  go  above  to  lay  and  it  is  desirable  to 
keep  brood  and  surplus  honey  separated.  This  hive  might  be 
termed  a  specialist's  hive  but  it  can  be  easily  managed  by  an 
amateur.  Both  of  the  above  hives  are  built  in  two  sizes,  for  eight 
or  ten  frames.  The  ten-frame  size  is  the  one  most  commonly 
used  by  experienced  beekeepers  so  that  it  is  safe  to  decide  that 
this  is  the  best  adapted  for  all  purposes. 

The  beginner  will  make  no  mistake  in  selecting  either  of  the 
hives  or  supers  described  above.  The  amateur  who  keeps  only  a 
few  hives  will  readily  decide  to  work  for  comb  honey,  because  this 
will  not  require  an  expensive  extractor  and  nice  white  combs  of 
section  honey  will  appeal  to  him.    For  this  purpose  the  sectional 


BEEKEEPING   FOR    CONNECTICUT. 


431 


hive  is  worthy  of  consideration.  All  hives  or  parts  should  be  alike 
so  as  to  be  interchangeable.  There  probably  is  no  worse  nuisance 
in  an  apiary  than  several  different  styles  and  shapes  of  hives  and 
supers. 

Smokers. 

The  smoker  (see  figure  14)  is  indispensable  while  handling  bees. 
It  is  made  of  tin  or  copper  and  is  provided  with  a  bellows  to  drive 
the  smoke  and  keep  the  fire  going.     Old  cotton  rags;  waste  or 
rotten  wood    are  used 
for  fuel.      Blow  a  little 
smoke    in    at    the    en- 
trance   before   opening 
the    hive.       Give    the 
bees  a  little  more  while 
uncovering  the  frames; 
if    very    cross,     repeat 
the    dose,     until    they 
yield;    then  they   may 
be    handled     safely. 

Handle    them     gently,  w     ,       , 

.  1.  ...         .  Figure  13.    Wood-and-wire  queen-exclud- 

avoiding  all  quick  mo-       ing  board(  with  seven.wire  strips.     (After 

tl0ns-  the  A.  I.  Root  Co.) 


Figure   14.     Junior     Figure    15.     Bee-glove  with  fingers. 
Smoker.      (After   the  (After  the  A    j   Root  c    } 

A.  I.  Root  Co.) 

Figure  16.    The 
VEILS.  Alexander  bee  veil. 

....  (After    the    A.    I. 

In  addition  to  the  smoker,  a  veil  is  necessary  for    Root  Co.) 

the   beginner,  and  possibly  gloves  for  the  hands. 
It  is  foolish  for  the  novice  to  undertake  to  handle  bees  without 
proper  protection.     One  type  of  veil  is  shown  in  figure  16  and  a 
glove  in  figure  15. 

Hive  Tool. 
Some  kind  of  a  hive  tool  is  a  necessity.    The  one  illustrated  in 
figure  17  is  excellent,  though  a  screwdriver  will  do. 


432       connecticut  experiment  station  bulletin  205. 

Comb  Foundation. 
The  comb  foundation  is  a  thin  sheet  of  pure  beeswax,  shown  in 
figure  18,  embossed  to  imitate  the  base  or  septum  of  the  natural 
built  comb.  The  use  of  this  is  almost  indispensable  in  securing 
straight  worker  brood  combs.  For  economy  some  beekeepers  use 
only  starters,  which  are  narrow  strips  about  one  inch  wide.  This 
results  in  the  building  by-the  bees  of  a  considerable  amount  of  un- 
desirable drone  comb.  Later,  when  this  is  occupied  by  the  queen, 
sometimes  multitudes  of  useless  drones  emerge,  which  are  con- 
sumers instead  of  producers.  Three  workers  or  producers  can  be 
hatched  from  the  same  .comb  surface  that  is  occupied  by  two  drone 
cells ;  therefore  it  is  evident  that  the  full  sheets  of  foundation  are 
cheapest  in  the  end.  The  use  of  full  sheets  is  further  demonstrated 
when  it  is  remembered  that  it  takes  from  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds 
of  honey  to  produce  one  pound  of  wax, 
and  the  comb  must  be  built  before  it  can 
be  used  for  storing  honey  or  brood.  JC^OaC^C^^^y 


3E 


Figure  17.     Nickeled-steel  hive-tool.  -    Fi|uF?   l8'      ??I?h 

zap         1      a    t    t,         m'  <  foundation.        (After 

(After  the  A.  I.  Root  Co.)  the  A#  L  Root  Co_) 

Stocking  with  Bees. 

After  getting  the  hive  ready,  the  next  thing  is  to  have  it  stocked 
with  bees.  As  a  general  rule  it  is  best,  if  possible,  to  buy  good- 
sized  first  swarms  as  they  issue  during  early  May.  These  can 
usually  be  procured  locally  for  about  three  dollars.  One  great 
advantage  in  securing  bees  in  this  way  is  the  freedom  of  any 
danger  of  brood  diseases  which  might  be  found  in  a  colony  with 
combs.  Brood  diseases  are  dangerous  for  the  veteran  beekeeper 
but  much  more  so  for  the  beginner.  Such  a  colony  hived  in  a 
single-story  standard  hive  will  soon  fill  it  with  honey  and  brood 
and  a  super  should  be  furnished  so  that  all  surplus  may  be  stored ; 
likewise  with  the  sectional  hive,  a  single  unit  is  used  and  a  super 
of  section  boxes  is  put  on  immediately  with  the  excluder  between. 
It  is  possible  and  even  probable  that  this  may  be  followed  with 
another  one  week  later,  if  the  honey  flow  continues.  A  second 
unit  of  brood  chamber,  however,  should  be  added  in  sufficient 
time  for  the  bees  to  stock  it  up  for  winter. 


BEEKEEPING  FOR  CONNECTICUT. 


433 


If  swarms  cannot  be  obtained  in  this  way  it  is  best  to  purchase 
from  some  reliable  dealer.  These  may  be  obtained  either  in  bulk, 
in  nucleus,  or  in  full  colonies.  Full  colonies  will  sometimes  produce 
enough  the  first  season  to  pay  for  themselves,  so  that  this  usually 
is  a  very  satisfactory  way  to  buy,  and  the  purchaser  will  have 
gentle,  blooded  stock  to  start  with. 

The  Colony. 

Every  normal  colony  of  bees  in  prosperous  times  is  composed 
of  three  varieties  of  bees:  the  queen,  or,  more  correctly  speaking, 
the  mother  bee,  that  lays  all  the  eggs  (often  as  many  as  three 
thousand  a  day  during  the  busy  season) ;   forty  or  fifty  thousand 


Figure  19.  The  honey  bee:  a,  worker;  b,  queen;  c,  drone.  Twice 
natural  size.  (After  Phillips,  Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture.) 


workers  or  undeveloped  females;  and  a  few  hundred  drones  or 
male  bees.  The  queen  is  the  important  factor  in  the  success  of 
the  colony.  Ancient  writers  called  her  the  "King,"  and  it  was  only 
within  a  few  years  that  the  error  was  discovered.  Some  queens 
are  so  prolific  that  the  ordinary  hive  is  too  small  to  accommodate 
them,  keeping  it  overflowing  with  bees  and  activity,  while  others 
are  so  inferior  that  their  colonies  make  only  a  sickly  effort  to  exist. 
The  drone,  queen  and  worker  are  shown  in  figure  19. 

As  has  been  mentioned,  the  combs  are  composed  of  two  different 
sized  cells.  Eggs  laid  in  the  larger  or  drone  cells  always  mature 
drones,  while  those  laid  in  the  smaller  ones  mature  workers.    The 


434         CONNECTICUT   EXPERIMENT    STATION    BULLETIN    205. 

queen  cell  is  simply  an  elongated  worker  cell,  resembling  a  peanut, 
drawn  out  over  the  comb.  In  case  the  colony  needs  a  queen,  any 
worker  egg  laid  or  placed  in  one  of  these  cells  will  hatch  into  a 
larva,  which  will  be  lavishly  fed  with  a  thick,  milky  fluid  and  ma- 
ture a  queen.  The  queen  usually  passes  the  time  of  her  greatest 
usefulness  in  her  second  year.  For  this  reason  a  good  many  pro- 
gressive beekeepers  practice  requeening  at  this  time.  Eggs  are 
shown  on  plate  XXXVI,  c,  and  drone,  queen  and  worker  cells  on 
plate  XXXV,  b. 

Workers. 

By  far  the  most  numerous  bees  in  the  hive  are  the  workers. 
They  are  also  the  smallest,  measuring  only  about  one-half  inch  in 
length.  Except  laying  the  eggs,  they  do  all  the  work  about  the 
hive — gathering  the  honey  and  pollen ;  building  the  combs ;  feed- 
ing and  taking  care  of  the  brood;  cleaning  the  hive,  sealing  all 
cracks  and  doing  all  other  labor  required.  The  life  of  the  workers 
during  the  busy  season  is  only  about  six  weeks,  in  which  time  they 
wear  out  their  wings  flying  against  the  wind  or  through  the  grass 
in  the  fields  in  search  of  food.  For  this  reason  grass  should  always 
be  kept  down  in  front  of  the  hive  entrance. 

Drones. 

The  drones  are  the  non-producers  of  the  hive  and  live  on  the 
toil  of  the  workers.  They  have  no  means  of  producing  honey  or 
secreting  wax  or  doing  even  the  work  necessary  for  their  own  sup- 
port. They  are  longer  than  the  workers,  shorter  than  the  queen, 
but  thicker  and  clumsier  than  either.  Their  wings  reach  to  the 
tip  of  their  body ;  and  when  they  are  on  the  wing  they  make  much 
more  noise.  Their  sole  object  is  to  mate  with  the  young  queens, 
which  always  happens  on  the  wing.  After  the  mating  the  drone 
dies  immediately. 

Races  of  Bees. 

The  black  or  German  bee  was  the  first  brought  to  this  country, 
some  say  by  the  Pilgrims ;  others,  by  way  of  Florida.  These  are  a 
very  hardy  race  and  good  honey  gatherers,  more  especially  adapted 
to  the  production  of  comb  honey,  but  their  irritable  temper  and 
inability  to  resist  disease  have  brought  them  into  disfavor. 

T.heir  cousins,  the  Banats,  Carniolans  and  Caucasians,  three 
other  dark  races,  are  gentle  and  good  honey  producers  if  they  can 


PLATE   XXXIII. 


a.      Mating  and  queen  rearing  apiary  of  A.  W.  Yates,  Hartford. 


b.      View  of  apiary  at  Station  farm,  Mt.  Carmel. 


PLATE  XXXIV. 


A  standard  hive  opened  showing  brood  frames:  Mr.  L.  C.  Root, 
Stamford,  a  veteran  Connecticut  beekeeper.  (After  Dr.  E.  F.  Bigelow, 
Arcadia,  Sound  Beach,  Conn.) 


PLATE  XXXV. 


a.      Section  frames  as  used  in  the  supers:     in  the  flat,  bent  together,  with 
foundation  starter,  and  with  drawn  comb  ready  to  receive  the  honey. 


WffTWSPRSgS! 


b.  Close  view  of  brood  comb,  showing  open  and  capped  cells:  the 
large  peanut-shaped  cells  are  queen  cells;  the  larger  open  cells  near  lower 
right  hand  corner  are  drone  cells;  others  are  worker  cells.  (After  Dr.  E. 
F.  Bigelow,  Arcadia,  Sound  Beach,  Conn.) 


PLATE  XXXVI. 


****** * 

i  *#<»  *.  # 

*  *  *  H  *  *  *  » 
*  #  ft  t  0  # 


BEEKEEPING   FOR    CONNECTICUT.  435 

be  kept  from  swarming,  but  this  is  almost  impossible.  The  Cyp- 
rians are  energetic  workers  but  also  have  bad  tempers,  which  bar 
them  from  most  apiaries. 

The  Italians,  introduced  into  this  country  in  the  sixties,  are  the 
most  popular  among  good  beekeepers.  They  are  good  workers, 
and,  as  a  rule,  are  as  gentle  to  handle  as  any  of  the  other  races 
named.  These  qualities,  together  with  their  rich,  golden  color,  and 
their  ability  to  withstand  some  of  the  worst  ravages  of  foul  brood, 
make  them  the  favorites  of  our  beekeepers. 

Location. 

The  needs  of  the  bees  are  seldom  considered  in  selecting  a  loca- 
tion. It  is  best  to  choose  a  sheltered  spot,  protected  as  much  as 
possible  from  prevailing  winds.  The  south  side  of  a  hedge,  a  high 
board  fence  or  building,  or  a  clearing  in  the  woods,  is  good.  Look 
out  for  air  currents,  such  as  circulate  between  two  buildings. 
Have  the  hives  face  the  south  as  near  as  convenient. 

Swarm  Control. 

It  requires  a  large  force  of  bees  in  each  hive  to  secure  a  crop  of 
honey.  The  larger  the  force  when  the  flow  arrives,  the  better. 
The  beekeeper  with  one  hundred  weak  colonies  would  get  scarcely 
any  surplus,  while  the  one  with  only  twenty -five  or  fifty  colonies 
of  good  strength  would  obtain  good  results.  This  crowded  condi- 
tion, however,  is  one  of  the  primary  causes  of  swarming,  and  it  is 
advisable,  as  far  as  possible,  to  have  no  swarming  during  the 
honey  flow.  Some  of  the  precautions  taken  for  its  prevention  are 
the  introduction  of  young  queens  some  time  previously;  giving 
plenty  of  room  bv  adding  a  super,  and  when  this  is  partially  full, 
if  the  prospects  look  good  for  the  continuance  of  the  flow,  inserting 
another  beneath  the  first ;  ventilating  by  giving  full,  wide  entrance, 
or  if  the  nights  are  very  warm,  raising  the  hive  an  inch  from  the 
bottom  board.  These  methods,  while  precautionary  to  discourage 
swarming,  are  not  preventive  and  it  is  advisable  to  examine  every 
colony  occasionally  for  symptoms,  and  if  at  any  time  it  is  found 
that  queen  cells  are  started,  they  should  be  cut  out  and  a  super  of 
extracting  combs  given  without  the  excluder.  A  week  later,  if 
no  cells  are  started,  this  can  be  exchanged  for  a  comb  honey  super. 
Should  cells  be  started,  however,  remove  the  super,  taking  the 


436         CONNECTICUT    EXPERIMENT    STATION    BULLETIN    205. 

queen  with  it,  and  exchange  places  with  the  brood  chamber,  using 
this  as  a  brood  chamber.  Put  on  a  super  of  section  boxes  immedi- 
ately and  close  the  hive.  A  portion  of  the  bees  in  the  old  brood 
chamber  should  then  be  shaken  in  front  of  the  new  hive,  leaving 
only  enough  to  properly  take  care  of  the  brood,  or,  if  no  increase 
is  desired,  all  should  be  shaken  out  and  the  brood  disposed  of 
among  weak  colonies.  This  old  chamber  of  brood  and  some  bees 
having  queen  cells  under  way  will  soon  mature  a  queen  and  later 
become  as  good  as  any  colony. 

Comb  Honey. 

Much  more  labor  and  skill  is  required  in  the  production  of  comb 
honey  than  in  extracted  honey.  In  a  great  many  locations  some 
form  of  contraction  is  necessary  to  secure  good  work  in  the  super. 
This  is  true  of  our  own  locality  and  sometimes  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  get  the  bees  to  go  to  work  in  the  supers.  To  remove  some 
of  the  frames  and  replace  them  with  wooden  dummies  invariably 
results  in  poor  filling  of  the  outside  sections  and  getting  them 
completed  with  the  rest.  For  this  reason  all  deep  frame  hives,  if 
not  failures,  at  least  are  clumsy.  It  will  be  seen,  then,  that  it  is 
better  to  contract  from  the  top,  retaining  in  this  way  the  whole 
supering  surface.  With  the  sectional  hive,  removing  all  but  one 
unit  reduces  the  capacity  of  the  brood  chamber  to  the  desired 
amount.  This  the  queen  will  keep  filled  with  brood,  forcing  the 
honey  into  the  super.  This  single  unit,  holding  the  equivalent  of 
about  six  and  one  quarter  regular  frames,  is  sufficient  to  maintain 
the  strength  of  the  colony  during  the  main  honey  flow,  after  which 
another  unit  should  be  given  for  the  bees  to  build  up  for  winter. 
Obviously  it  takes  but  a  moment's  time  with  this  hive  to  provide 
a  very  large  brood  nest  or  to  contract  to  a  very  small  one.  Units 
should  never  be  taken  away,  however,  without  giving  their  equiv- 
alent in  supers,  unless  a  swarm  is  desired. 

Usually  during  fruit  bloom  most  colonies  will  require  more 
room.  One  unit  of  brood  chamber  filled  with  full  sheets  of  founda- 
tion is  given.  This  will  be  drawn  out  and  occupied  with  honey 
and  brood  at  the  beginning  of  the  clover  flow.  This  is  the  unit, 
with  its  bright,  new  combs,  that  should  be  used  when  the  brood 
chamber  is  reduced  to  one  unit.  Fancy,  white  comb  honey  would 
become  more  or  less  travel-stained  if  old  brood  combs  were  used 


BEEKEEPING    FOR    CONNECTICUT.  437 

here.  The  excluder  and  super  of  section  boxes  are  added  and 
when  this  is  about  half  filled  another  is  inserted  between.  More 
are  added  as  long  as  there  is  a  prospect  of  their  being  finished,  so 
that  sometimes  there  are  four  or  five  on  at  once.  Finished  section 
honey  should  be  removed  from  the  bees  as  soon  as  completed.  It 
sometimes  takes  but  a  few  days  to  become  soiled. 

As  stated  previously,  with  the  regular  depth  frame,  bees  are 
sometimes  slow  to  enter  the  super,  because  of  insufficient  numbers 
or  because  of  three  or  four  inches  of  capped  honey  along  the  top 
bar  of  the  brood  frame,  or  because  the  honey  flow  is  not  plentiful 
enough.  One  or  two  sections  of  foundation  should  be  removed 
and  replaced  with  some  that  are  partly  drawn.  These  are  called 
"Bait  sections"  and  will  generally  bring  about  the  desired  result, 
and  when  the  bees  have  once  commenced  to  work  in  them  there 
will  be  no  further  trouble. 


Extracted  Honey. 

To  produce  extracted  honey  also  requires  a  large  force  of  bees 
in  each  hive.  Weak  colonies  should  be  built  up  or  united  in  ad- 
vance so  that  all  will  be  at  full  strength  when  the  flow  arrives. 
Either  of  the  above  hives  can  be  used  with  supers  the  same  size 
as  the  brood  chambers  or  with  shallow  extracting  supers.  The  shal- 
low ones  will  probably  be  found  the  most  satisfactory.  After  the 
combs  are  built,  nine  frames  should  be  used  in  a  ten-frame,  or 
seven  in  an  eight-frame  hive.  This  results  in  thick,  fat  combs 
that  are  more  easily  uncapped.    The  excluder  should  be  used. 


When  to  Put  on  Supers. 

To  produce  fancy  comb  honey,  full  sheets  of  thin  or  extra  thin 
foundation  should  be  used  in  the  section  boxes.  These  should  be 
prepared  and  the  supers  ready  in  advance  so  that  there  will  be  no 
delay  when  they  are  needed.  This  will  be  about  the  middle  of 
May  if  the  season  should  be  early  and  plenty  of  fruit  bloom  near 
by,  or  the  first  to  the  middle  of  June  for  clover.  A  good  rule  is  to 
put  on  supers,  either  for  comb  or  extracted  honey  when  the  combs 
begin  to  show  white  along  the  top  bar  and  the  brood  nest  appears 
crowded  with  bees. 


438         CONNECTICUT   EXPERIMENT    STATION   BULLETIN    205. 


The  Extractor. 
This  is  a  machine  with  a  revolving  frame  inside,  used  to  remove 
the  honey  from  the  combs,  and  shown  in  figure  20.  After  the 
honey  has  thus  been  removed  the  combs  are  returned  to  the  bees 
to  be  refilled.  It  is  obvious  that  this  is  a  great  saving  to  the  bees 
both  in  time  and  labor,  which  is  very  important  during  a  rapid 
honey  flow,  and  is  the  reason  why  liquid  or  extracted  honey,  as  it 
is  called,  can  be  bought  so  much  cheaper.  An  extractor  is  a  good 
investment  for  a  beekeeper  with  five  or  more  colonies  of  bees. 
In  setting  the  extractor  it  should  be  securely  fastened  in  place  and 
raised  enough  from  the  floor  so  that  a  pail  will  go  under  the  gate. 
fl  When  the  frames  of  honey  are  removed 

from  the  hive,  they  are  taken  into  the 
extracting  room,  or  some  room  that  bees 
cannot  enter  and  the  cappings  are  cut  off 
with  a  sharp  knife  (See  figure  21).  They 
are  then  put  into  the  extractor,  and  after 
the  honey  has  been  removed  from  one 
side  they  are  turned  around  and  it  is 
taken  from  the  other. 


Figure  20.  Novice  non- 
reversible extractor.  (After 
the  A.  I.  Root  Co.) 


Figure  21.     Improved     Bingham  honey- 
knife.     (After  the  A.  I.  Root  Co.) 


After  the  combs  have  been  emptied,  if  the  flow  is  over  they 
should  be  stacked  over  one  or  more  colonies,  to  be  cleaned  of  what 
honey  remains.  This  should  be  done  at  night  so  that  they  will  be 
finished  before  daylight — when  there  is  danger  of  robbers.  At  the 
end  of  the  season  all  extracting  combs  should  be  put  away  secure 
from  rats  and  mice.  One  mouse  alone  will  do  an  immense  amount 
of  damage  if  allowed  access  to  them.  For  protection  from  the 
wax  moth,  which  sometimes  makes  its  appearance,  a  few  camphor 
balls  can  be  used  in  each  stack  of  combs. 


Care  of  Extracted  Honey. 
Liquid  honey  as  it  is  removed  from  the  extractor  should  be 
strained  into  a  deep  tank  and  allowed  to  stand  and  settle  for  a 


BEEKEEPING   FOR    CONNECTICUT.  439 

day  or  two.    This  allows  small  particles  of  wax  to  rise  to  the  surface 
to  be  skimmed  off.    It  is  then  bottled  or  put  into  cans  as  desired. 

Honey  and  Its  Uses. 

Honey  is  made  from  a  very  thin  nectar  gathered  from  the 
flowers  by  the  bees,  and  carried  into  their  hives.  It  is  so  thin  that 
sometimes  it  takes  over  two  pounds  of  nectar  to  make  one  pound 
of  honey.  Different  flowers  produce  different  flavors  and  colors, 
as,  for  example,  the  very  light  and  mild-flavored  honey  from 
linden  or  sweet  clover,  and  the  dark  and  strong-flavored  honey 
from  buckwheat. 

The  chemical  analysis  of  honey  shows  that  it  is  practically  all 
invert  sugar,  though  small  proportions  of  fruit  sugar  and  sucrose 
are  present.  Granulation  occurs  quickly  in  some  honeys  and  takes 
place  only  after  long  keeping  in  others.  Nearly  all  honeys  granu- 
late at  the  approach  of  cold  weather  and  granulation  is  an  indica- 
tion of  purity  rather  than  of  adulteration. 

Honey  is  an  excellent  food,  being  almost  pre-digested,  and  is 
especially  recommended  for  children,  invalids  and  consumptives. 
The  common  belief  that  honey,  unlike  sugar,  can  be  used  safely 
by  diabetics  seems  not  to  be  supported  by  facts. 

Bakers  have  found  that  cookies  and  cakes,  when  sweetened  with 
honey,  will  keep  moist  and  palatable  for  a  long  time,  and  as  it  is 
in  a  sense  a  preservative,,  they  will  not  mold.  For  this  reason  it  is 
used  in  canning  fruits,  immense  quantities  of  the  cheaper  grades 
being  employed.  It  is  used  extensively  by  biscuit  manufacturers 
and  confectioners,  one  firm  alone  buying  hundreds  of  tons  each 
year. 

For  cooking  recipes  requiring  honey,  the  reader  should  consult 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  653,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

Honey  Plants. 

Some  of  the  principal  honey  and  pollen  plants  of  Connecticut, 
mentioned  in  about  the  order  in  which  they  commence  to  yield, 
are  as  follows : 

Skunk  cabbage,  willow  and  elm  trees,  March  and  April.  These 
are  valuable  for  early  pollen  but  furnish  little  nectar. 

Maples;  April,  pollen  and  nectar. 


44-0  CONNECTICUT    EXPERIMENT    STATION    BULLETIN    205. 

Dandelion;   May  10,  pollen  and  some  nectar. 

Fruit  bloom ;  May  1 5 ,  pollen  and  nectar ;  when  weather  condi- 
tions are  favorable,  sometimes  surplus  honey. 

Wild  raspberry;  June,  pollen;  nectar  makes  exceptionally  fine 
table  honey  and  usually  yields  plentifully. 

Locust ;  May  and  June ;  some  kinds  yield  heavily ;  honey 
light  and  of  good  flavor. 

Clover;  June  15.  The  clovers  are  the  most  important  class  of 
honey  plants  and  include  the  common  white,  red,  alsike,  crimson 
and  sweet  clover.  Alfalfa,  although  of  the  same  family,  secretes 
no  nectar  in  this  State.  White  and  alsike  are  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant and  in  some  years  produce  large  quantities  of  the  finest 
table  honey,  which  is  recognized  by  its  light  golden  color  and 
delicate  flavor. 

Sweet  clover;  June  until  frost.  This  plant  is  not  duly  appreci- 
ated by  our  farmers,  so  is  not  sufficiently  abundant  in  Connecticut 
to  be  an  important  honey  plant.  The  honey  is  light  colored,  with 
a  pleasant,  spicy  flavor,  making  it  a  delicious  table  honey.  This 
plant  is  an  exceptionally  gocd  forage  plant,  usually  found  growing 
in  waste  places  or  where  the  soil  is  too  poor  for  other  crops.  Like 
the  other  clovers  it  requires  lime  for  abundant  growth,  and  when 
grown  under  favorable  conditions  can  be  cut  two  or  three  times  a 
season.  The  hay  is  of  fine  quality,  and  is  relished  by  horses  and 
cattle. 

Red  clover;  June.  Secretes  nectar  abundantly,  but  on  account 
of  its  corolla  tubes  being  too  long  for  honey  bees  it  is  more  of  a 
bumblebee  plant.  However,  in  times  of  drouth  or  in  case  of 
second  growth  when  the  tubes  are  shorter,  it  is  sometimes  worked 
extensively  by  honey  bees. 

Linden  or  basswood;  July.  This  tree  is  seldom  sufficiently 
abundant  to  become  an  important  source  of  honey.  The  honey 
is  very  light  and  of  fine  flavor. 

Sumac;  July.  Some  kinds  yield  nectar  freely.  The  honey  is 
light  and  of  fine  flavor. 

Goldenrod;  September  to  frost.  Honey  is  light,  of  good  flavor 
when  well  ripened. 

Wild  aster;  October  till  frost.  Honey  light  and  of  good  flavor, 
but  granulates  quickly. 


beekeeping  for  connecticut.  441 

Diseases  of  Bees. 

Bees,  like  all  other  living  things,  are  subject  to  diseases,  the 
most  common  of  which  in  Connecticut  are  the  contagious  bacterial 
brood  diseases  known  as  American  and  European  foul  brood. 
The  latter  is  by  far  the  most  prevalent,  having  been  found  in  every 
county  and  in  some  cases  wiping  out  whole  apiaries.  These  dis- 
eases, however,  if  taken  in  time,  can  be  controlled,  but  if  neglected 
are  sure  to  cause  loss  and  be  a  source  of  infection  to  surrounding 
apiaries.  For  this  reason  it  is  imperative  that  beekeepers  should 
become  acquainted  with  the  appearance  of  these  diseases  and  the 
methods  of  treatment  so  as  to  handle  them  intelligently.  European 
foul  brood,  although  much  more  contagious  and  rapid  in  spreading, 
responds  better  to  treatment  than  the  American  foul  brood. 
Dr.  Phillips  of  the  Bureau  of  Entomology  at  Washington  describes 
the  two  diseases  as  follows : 

"The  presence  of  a  particular  disease  in  a  colony  of  bees  can  be  ascer- 
tained most  reliably  by  a  bacteriological  examination,  since  the  symptoms 
are  somewhat  variable.  It  is  possible,  however,  to  describe  the  usual 
manifestations  of  the  diseases,  and  the  usual  differences,  so  that  the  bee- 
keeper can  in  most  cases  tell  which  disease  is  present. 

American  Foul  Brood. 

"American  foul  brood  is  frequently  called'  simply  'foul  brood.'  It 
usually  shows  itself  in  the  larva  just  about  the  time  that  the  larva  fills  the 
cell  and  after  it  has  ceased  feeding  and  has  begun  pupation.  At  this  time 
it  is  sealed  over  in  the  comb.  The  first  indication  of  the  infection  is  a 
slight  brownish  discoloration  and  the  loss  of  the  well-rounded  appearance 
of  the  normal  larva.  At  this  stage  the  disease  is  not  usually  recognized  by 
the  beekeeper.  The  larva  gradually  sinks  down  in  the  cell  and  becomes 
darker  in  color  and  the  posterior  end  lies  against  the  bottom  of  the  cell. 
Frequently  the  segmentation  of  the  larva  is  clearly  marked.  By  the  time 
it  has  partially  dried  down  and  has  become  quite  dark  brown  (coffee 
colored)  the  most  typical  characteristic  of  this  disease  manifests  itself. 
If  a  match  stick  or  toothpick  is  inserted  into  the  decaying  mass  and  with- 
drawn the  larval  remains  adhere  to  it  and  are  drawn  out  in  a  thread  which 
sometimes  extends  for  several  inches  before  breaking.  This  ropiness  is 
the  chief  characteristic  used  by  the  beekeeper  in  diagnosing  this  disease. 
The  larva  continues  to  dry  down  and  gradually  loses  its  ropiness  until  it 
finally  becomes  merely  a  scale  on  the  lower  side  wall  and  base  of  the  cell. 
The  scale  formed  by  the  dried-down  larva  adheres  tightly  to  the  cell  and 
can  be  removed  with  difficulty  from  the  cell  wall.  The  scales  can  best  be 
observed  when  the  comb  is  held  with  the  top  inclined  toward  the  obseryer 
so  that  a  bright  light  strikes  the  lower  side  wall.     A  very  characteristie 


442  CONNECTICUT   EXPERIMENT    STATION    BULLETIN    205. 

and  usually  penetrating  odor  is  often  noticeable  in  the  decaying  larvae. 
This  can  perhaps  best  be  likened  to  the  odor  of  heated  glue. 

"The  majority  of  the  larvae  which  die  of  this  disease  are  attacked  after 
being  sealed  in  the  cells.  The  cappings  are  often  entirely  removed  by  the 
bees,  but  when  they  are  left  they  usually  become  sunken  and  frequently 
perforated.  As  the  healthy  brood  emerges  the  comb  shows  the  scattered 
sunken  cappings  covering  dead  larvae,  giving  it  a  characteristic  appear- 
ance. 

"Pupae  also  may  die  of  this  disease,  in  which  case  they,  too,  dry  down, 
become  ropy,  and  have  the  characteristic  odor  and  color.  The  tongue 
frequently  adheres  to  the  upper  side  wall  and  often  remains  there  even 


Figure  22.  American  foul  brood:  note  the  normal  sealed  cells;  the 
sunken  cappings,  some,  showing  perforations;  the  larvae  and  pupae 
affected  by  disease;  the  scales  formed  from  dried-down  larvae.  Three 
times  natural  size.  (After  Phillips,  Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.) 


after  the  pupa  has  dried  down  to  a  scale.  Younger  unsealed  larvae  are 
sometimes  affected.  Usually  the  disease  attacks  only  worker  brood,  but 
occasional  cases  are  found. in  which  queen  and  drone  brood  are  diseased. 
It  is  not  certain  that  race  of  bees,  season,  or  climate  have  any  affect  on 
the  virulence  of  this  disease,  except  that  in  warmer  climates,  where  the 
breeding  season  is  prolonged,  the  rapidity  of  devastation  is  more  marked. 
See  figure  22. 

European  Foul  Brood. 

"European  foul  brood  was  formerly  called  'black  brood'  or  'New  York 
bee  disease.'  The  name  'black  brood'  was  a  poor  one,  for  the  color  of  the 
dead  brood  is  rarely  black  or  even  very  dark  brown.  European  foul  brood 
usually  attacks  the  larva  at  an  earlier  stage  of  its  development  than 


BEEKEEPING    FOR    CONNECTICUT. 


443 


American  foul  brood  and  while  it  is  still  curled  up  at  the  base  of  the  cell. 
A  small  percentage  of  larvae  dies  after  capping,  but  sometimes  quite 
young  larvae  are  attacked.  Sunken  and  perforated  cappings  are  sometimes 
observed  just  as  in  American  foul  brood.  The  earliest  indication  of  the 
disease  is  a  slight  yellow  or  gray  discoloration  and  uneasy  movement  of 
the  larva  in  the  cell.  The  larva  loses  its  well-rounded,  opaque  appearance 
and  becomes  slightly  translucent,  so  that  the  tracheae  may  become  promi- 
nent, giving  the  larvae  a  clearly  segmented  appearance.  The  larva  is 
usually  flattened  against  the  base  of  the  cell,  but  may  turn  so  that  the 
ends  of  the  larva  are  to  the  rear  of  the  cell,  or  may  fall  away  from  the  base. 
Later  the  color  changes  to  a  decided  yellow  or  gray  and  the  translucency 
is  lost.     The  yellow  color  may  be  taken  as  the  chief  characteristic  of  this 


Figure  23.  European  foul  brood:  note  the  normal  sealed  cells;  the 
larvae  affected  by  disease;  the  normal  larva  at  age  attacked  by  disease; 
the  dried-down  larvae  or  scales.  Three  times  natural  size.  (After  Phillips, 
Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


disease.  The  dead  larva  appears  as  a  moist,  somewhat  collapsed  mass, 
giving  the  appearance  of  being  melted.  When  the  remains  have  become 
almost  dry,  the  tracheae  sometimes  become  conspicuous  again,  this  time 
by  retaining  their  shape,  while  the  rest  of  the  body  content  dries  around 
them.  Finally  all  that  is  left  of  the  larva  is  a  grayish-brown  scale  against 
the  base  of  the  cell,  or  a  shapeless  mass  on  the  lower  side  wall  if  the  larva 
did  not  retain  its  normal  position.  Very  few  scales  are  black.  The  scales 
are  not  adhesive,  but  are  easily  removed,  and  the  bees  carry  out  a  great 
many  in  their  efforts  to  clean  house. 

"Decaying  larvae  which  have  died  of  this  disease  are  usually  not  ropy 
as  in  American  foul  brood,  bu't  a  slight  ropiness  is  sometimes  observed. 
There  is  usually  little  odor  in  European  foul  brood,  but  sometimes  a  sour 


444  CONNECTICUT   EXPERIMENT    STATION   BULLETIN    205. 

odor  is  present,  which  reminds  one  of  yeast  fermentation.  This  disease 
attacks  drone  and  queen  larvae  almost  as  quickly  as  those  of  the  workers. 
"European  foul  brood  is  more  destructive  during  the  spring  and  early 
summer  than  at  other  times,  often  entirely  disappearing  during  late  sum- 
mer and  autumn,  or  during  a  heavy  honey  flow.  Italian  bees  seem  to  be 
better  able  to  resist  the  ravages  of  this  disease  than  any  other  race.  The 
disease  at  times  spreads  with  startling  rapidity  and  is  most  destructive. 
Where  it  is  prevalent  a  considerably  larger  percentage  of  colonies  is  af- 
fected than  is  usual  for  American  foul  brood.  This  disease  is  very  variable 
in  its  symptoms  and  other  manifestations  and  is  often  a  puzzle  to  the 
beekeeper."     See  figure  23. 

To  the  ordinary  beekeeper  the  two  diseases  appear  very  much 
alike.  "The  sunken  and  perforated  cappings,  the  reduction  of  the 
larva  to  a  stringy,  brown  mass,  the  foul  odor,  and  the  dwindling 
of  the  colony,  are  the  most  noticeable  indications  of  the  foul  brood 
diseases." 

How  Foul  Brood  Diseases  are  Spread. 
Some  of  the  means  of  spreading  the  infection  are  as  follows: 
By  the  bees: 

1.  Diseased  bees  entering  wrong  hives. 

2.  Robbing  diseased  colonies. 

3 .  Eating  honey  that  i ,  infected. 
By  the  owner: 

4.  Shifting  combs  from  diseased  colonies  to  healthy  ones. 

5.  Using  second-hand  hives  that  have  contained  diseased 

colonies. 

6.  Promiscuous  handling  of  healthy  and  diseased  colonies 

without  disinfecting  hands  and  tools. 

7.  Exchanging  places  of  colonies  in  diseased  apiaries. 

Treatment. 
As  it  has  been  found  that  Italian  bees  are  more  immune  to,  or 
at  least  better  able  to  resist  the  ravages  of,  European  Foul  Brood 
than  other  races,  it  is  strongly  recommended  that  apiaries  be  re- 
queened  with  young  Italian  queens  of  good  stock  in  either  of  the 
treatments  given  below.  In  the  case  of  all  weak  colonies,  or  those 
showing  25  per  cent,  or  more  of  diseased  brood,  it  is  best  to  shake 
the  bees  if  in  frame  hives,  or  drum  them  out  if  in  box  hives,  into 
new  or  disinfected  hives  containing  full  sheets  of  foundation. 
Good  results  are  sometimes  obtained  where  the  colony  is  VERY 


BEEKEEPING    FOR    CONNECTICUT.  445  ' 

STRONG  and  the  infection  is  SLIGHT,  or  less  than  above  stated, 
by  removing  the  old  queen  and  introducing  a  young  one  of  good 
Italian  stock  ten  days  later.  This  results  in  the  cessation  of  egg- 
laying  for  several  days,  allowing  the  colony  a  chance  to  clean  up 
the  decayed  matter.  The  dequeening  method  should  not  be  used 
in  the  treatment  of  American  Foul  Brood,  which  can  best  be  cured 
only  by  the  shaking  method.  When  treating  by  the  shaking 
method,  it  is  best  to  select  a  time  when  there  is  some  honey  coming 
in,  as  there  is  less  danger  of  robbing  and  the  colony  will  require  no 
further  feeding. 

If,  however,  it  is  decided  to  treat  immediately,  and  there  is  no 
honey  coming  in,  it  should  be  done  towards  night  when  few  bees 
are  flying,  so  as  to  avoid  infecting  other  colonies.  For  this  reason 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  spill  or  drop  any  honey  where  bees  will 
have  access  to  it.  If  no  honey  is  coming  in,  feed  a  pint  of  sugar 
sirup  each  night  for  a  week  or  until  the  bees  are  nicely  started. 
Never  use  honey  for  feeding  if  it  can  be  avoided. 

Disinfection. 
All  tools,  as  well  as  the  hands,  should  be  washed  thoroughly 
and  the  inside  of  the  hive  scorched  with  fire.  A  plumber's  torch  is 
best  for  this  purpose  but  the  hive  can  be  moistened  with  kerosene 
oil  and  lighted,  and  when  sufficiently  scorched  the  fire  can  be  ex- 
tinguished with  a  blanket  thrown  over  the  hive.  The  combs 
should  be  melted  into  wax  and  the  refuse  burned  or  buried,  and 
not  left  where  bees  can  visit  it. 

Apiary  Inspection  in  Connecticut. 
Since  1909  apiaries  in  Connecticut  have  been  inspected  for  foul 
brood  diseases,  as  provided  by  Statute,  the  supervision  of  the 
work  being  in  charge  of  the  State  Entomologist.  Two  inspectors 
are  employed  on  a  per  diem  basis,  as  follows:  Mr.  H.  W.  Coley, 
Westport,  Inspector  for  Fairfield,  New  Haven,  Middlesex  and 
New  London  Counties;  Mr.  A.  W.  Yates,  Hartford,  Inspector  for 
Litchfield,  Hartford,  Tolland  and  Windham  Counties.  Permanent 
records  of  these  inspections  are  kept  in  the  office  of  the  State  Ento- 
mologist at  New  Haven,  and  accounts  of  each  season's  work  have-, 
been  published  in  the  Reports  of  this  Station  as  follows: 

1910,  page  669;    1911,  page  275;    1912,  page  223;    1913,  page 
195; 1914,  page  126;  1915,  page  95;  1916,  page  78;  1917,  page  242. 


446  CONNECTICUT    EXPERIMENT    STATION    BULLETIN    205. 

Applications  for  inspection,  or  for  advice  about  handling  bees, 
may  be  made  to  either  of  the  inspectors  named  above,  or  to  W.  E. 
Britton,  State  Entomologist,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
New  Haven,  Conn. 

Publications  on  Beekeeping. 

The  following  publications  will  prove  useful  to  those  who  desire 
further  information  on  apiculture. 

book!s. 

How  to  Keep  Bees,  by  Anna  Botsford  Comstock.  Doubleday,  Page  & 
Co.,  Garden  City,  N.  Y.,  1905.     $1.00. 

Beekeeping,  by  E.  F.  Phillips.  The  MacMillan  Co.,  New  York,  N.  Y., 
1915.     $2.00. 

Productive  Bee-Keeping,  by  Frank  C.  Pellett,  J.  B.  Lippincott  Co., 
Philadelphia,   Pa.,   1916.     $1.50.  ' 

ABC  and  X  Y  Z  of  Bee  Culture,  by  A.  I.  and  E.  R.  Root.  The  A.  I. 
Root  Co.,  Medina,  O.,  Revised  Edition,  1913,  $2.50. 

BULLETINS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES    DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE, 
WASHINGTON,    D.    C. 

The  Honey  Bee,  by  Frank  Benton,  Bulletin  No.  1,  New  Series,  Division 
of  Entomology,  1896. 

The  Rearing  of  Queen  Bees,  by  E.  F.  Phillips,  Bulletin  No.  55,  Bureau 
of  Entomology,    1905. 

The  Production  and  Care  of  Extracted  Honey  (Part  I);  Wax  Moths 
and  American  Foul  Brood  (Part  II)  by  E.  F.  Phillips,  Bulletin  No.  75, 
Bureau  of  Entomology,  1907. 

The  Treatment  of  Bee  Diseases,  by  E.  F.  Phillips.  Farmers'  Bulletin 
No.  442,  191 1. 

Bees,  by  E.  F.  Phillips.     Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  447,  191 1. 

Comb  Honey,  by  Geo.  S.  Demuth,  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  503,  1912. 

Honey  and  Its  Uses  in  the  Home,  by  Caroline  L.  Hunt  and  Helen  W. 
Atwater.     Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  653,  1915. 


STATE     BULLETINS. 

The  Honey  Bee,  by  Wheeler  D.  Wright,  Bulletin  No.  49,  New  York 
State  Department  of  Agriculture,  Albany,  N.  Y.,  1913. 

Beekeeping  in  Massachusetts,  by  Burton  N.  Gates,  Bulletin  No.  129, 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Amherst,  Mass.,  1909. 

Some  of  the  Essentials  of  Beekeeping,  by  Burton  N.  Gates,  Bulletin 
No.  5,  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  Boston,  Mass.,  1912. 


The   Honey   Bee,   A   Guide  to   Apiculture  in   Canada,   by   C.   Gordon 
Hewitt,  Bulletin  No.  69,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Ottawa,  Canada. 


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